The comparative morphology and biometry of the lower cheek teeth of modern Equus are studied on approximately 300 mandibles belonging to the 10 usually recognised species : Equus grevyi, E. burchelli, E. quagga, E. zebra, E. africanus, E. asinus, E. hemionus, E. klang, E. przewalskii, E. caballus. The studied parameters comprise : occlusal length and width, postflexid length and index ; shape of the double knot (metaconid + metastylid + lingual groove) ; depth of the vestibular groove on the molars ; frequency of the pli caballinid, protostylid and other enamel plications or islets ; frequency of the dP/l.
The same methods of study are applied to a number of North American, Eurasian and African species. For the sake of comparison, some Hemphillian equids were observed (Dinohippus interpolatus, Dinohippus leidyanus, Astrohippus ansae, Phiohippus mexicanus) but most of the discussed material belongs to Pliocene or Pleistocene species of Equus : the « stenonine ›› E. stenonis, E. simplicidens, E. sanmeniensis and E. teilhardi; the « caballine ›› E. scotti, E. lambei, E. Iaurentius, E. mosbachensis, E. germanicus, E. gallicus, E. taubachensis and the Liakhov horse. The relationships of other species, in particular the North American E. calobatus, E. occidentalis, E. cf mexicanus are not clear for the moment. ln Africa, the Plio-Pleistocene species from Koobi Fora (Kenya) show some stenonine and perhaps asinine affinities. The relationships of E. numidicus and E. tabeti are uncertain but these species are probably related to the East African ones. E. mauritanicus is most certainly related to the Quagga group.
The biometrical data are gathered in 32 tables ; 4 photographie plates and 19 figures illustrate the next. The whole is a complement of the previously published studies of the skulls, upper cheek teeth, incisors and metapodials of modern and fossil Equus.

  

The mammalian fauna of the Tagai locality of Olhon Island in Lake Baikal contains six artiodactyls:
Amphitragulus boulangeri, Lagomeryx parvulus, Stephanocemas sp., Palaeomeryx kaupi, Orygotherium aff. escheri, and Brachyodus intermedius. They are reported from Eastern Siberia for the first time. A description of teeth and limb-bones are given. An analysis of the systematic composition of the Tagai fauna allows it to be correlated with European faunas of the second part of the Early Miocene (Orleanian, MN 3-4) and permit suggestion of the existance of a united European-Siberian zoogeographical sub-area in the middle latitudes of Eurasia at that time. 

The complex taxonomic history of the paramyid rodent genus Ailuravus is reviewed. It has been described as Hyracotherium, as a creodont carnivore and as a lemuroid primate - errors at the ordínal level that are most unusual for a rodent. The genus is a member of the poorly known subfamily Ailuravinae, probably derived from some European Early Eocene species of Paramys. Aíluravus was a large arboreal paramyid with highly rugose cheek teeth, very well developed hypocone, and a remarkably weak lower incisor. It was tropical to subtropical. Three named species are recognized, A. macrurus from the Lutetian of Messel; the genotype, A. picteti, from Egerkingen, Buchsweiler and the Geiseltal, slightly later in the Lutetian; and A. stehlinschaubi, new name, from the Bartonian of Mormont-Eclépens and Robiac. One or more unnamed species are present in the Ypresian of Cuis. The species are close to a phyletic sequence. No later representatives of the genus are known. The late Eocene to earliest Oligocene North American paramyid Mytonomys, whose relationships have been obscure, is tentatively referred to the Ailuravinae. 

The fossil mammals discovered in the quarry of Rians (Sparnacian, Provence) are described. Among these forms, Hyracotherium is interesting because of the little molarization of the lower premolars and its small size, and Diacodexis by its small size and very primitive astragalus ; they may be the most primitive representatives of their respective orders. Also, Proviverra eisenmanni n. sp. is the smallest and most primitive hyaenodontid yet described. Hyopsodus itinerans is the first species of this genus described France. Among other rare fossils is a new species of bat, a small palaeoryctid, and other forms not yet identified. Marsupials are varied. Several new species are present among the rodents. The fauna is well-balanced and rich in small hyopsodontid condylarths. It is stratigraphically situated at the
Dormaal reference-level, at the base of the early Eocene, and is considered equivalent to the late Clarkforkian of North America. The hypothesis is presented that new forms appearing at the beginning of the Wasatchian in North America migrated, in fact, at that time from Europe.

  

The utilization of screen-washing and attack by dilute acetic acid has permitted the collecting, in the Miocene of the department of Hérault (France), of a very rich ichthyofauna. This fauna is presently comprised of about 60 studied species, of which 11 are new, and represents, in the present state of knowledge, the most varied Miocene selachian fauna described in the world.
The abondance of material has allowed an overall revision to be made; it has thus been possible to complete the description and the figuration of species that were poorly known until now, and to synonymize species that were established on simple morphotypes. Paleo-ecologic study of the ichthyofauna has permitted conclusions to be drawn relative to climate and bathymetry; it was thus possible to show that the Miocene fauna of Hérault was a fauna of a subtropical sea, essentially neritic with rare pelagic contributions.
Knowing the stratigraphic position of the localities, it has been possible to distinguish three faunal assemblages based on associations of species. Some hypotheses on the evolution of certain lineages have been expressed.
The comparison of this fauna with that of other regions permitted the relationships of two diflerent faunal provinces to be specified: the first belongs to the northern domain, characterized by a fauna still subtropical but with numerous temperate water elements; the leoond belongs to the Mesogean domain characterized by warm water forms. It has also lhovm that contemporary faunas could be very different according to the bathymetric zone in which they lived, which furnishes valuable information for the paleogeographic reconstruction of sedimentary basins.
  

The review of material recently collected in the new localities from the “Phosphorites du Quercy", and different localities from the South of France, bring new informations on the genus Eucricetodon THALER. 1966, and Pseudocricetodon  THALER,  I969 (Middle and Upper Oligocene. Western Europe). Thanks to Eucricetodon huerzeleri VIANEY-LIAUD, 1972, which were unsufficiently known until now, is proposed. During the middle Oligocene Eucricetodon atavus  MISONNE, 1957 seems to give rise to two lineages. One of them led to Eucricetodon huberi,which however exhibits a larger size and a development of progressive characters on the teeth. The other would be Eucricetodon huerzeleri well differentiated at the “Mas de Pauffié" standard level (beginning of the upper Oligocene). The ornementation of lower incisors is described, when possible. Though the fossils are not abundant, it seems that the ancestral lineage, Eucriretodon atavus, remains in  the upper Oligocene (Boningen standard level). evolving into Eucricetodon praecursor SCHAUB, 1925 (Rickenbach standard level). The characters of Eucricetodon dubius  (SCHAUB. 1925), represented by a numerous population in Pech Desse and Pech du Fraysse (Quercy). confirm that this species and Eucricetodon praecursor  belong to two different lineages. As Eucricetodon dubius shows more primitive features, this species could not originale from Eucricetodon atavus -Eucricetodon huberi. The appearance of this species at the level of Mas de Pauffié could be the result of an immigration. A new definition of Pseudocricetodon incertus (SCHLOSSER. 1884) is given. This species has been found in several localities, where it had not been identified until now. lts comparison with Pseudocricetodon moguntiacus  (BAHLO. l975), found at several localities from the standard level of Antoingt (end of middle Oligocene). shows a parallel evolution to that of Pseudocetodon incertus, which is  of larger size and with a less complicated pattern of teeth. 

The stapes is the last of the middle ear ossicle chain and the smallest bone of the mammalian skeleton. Because it rests on the membrane of the fenestra vestibuli during life, the stapes may often fall within the bony labyrinth cavity when soft structures decay after death. In this work, we highlight the unexpected role that the bony labyrinth plays in the preservation of the stapes. Systematic investigation of the bony labyrinth of 50 petrosal bones of extinct and extant artiodactyls led to the discovery of eight cases of “intralabyrinthine” stapes. Three dimensional reconstructions of these stapes allow documenting stapes morphology of four extinct artiodactyl taxa: Microstonyx erymanthius (Suidae), Elomeryx borbonicus (Hippopotamoidea), ?Helohyus plicodon (Helohyidae), and an undetermined Cainotheriidae; and four extant ones Choeropsis and Hippopotamus (Hippopotamidae), and Tayassu and Phacochoerus (Suoidea). ?Helohyus plicodon from the Middle Eocene documents the oldest stapes known for the order Artiodactyla. Morphological study and metric analyses of our sample of artiodactylan stapes show that stapes are likely to carry relevant phylogenetic characters/signal within artiodactyls, and a potential Euungulata signature. 

When the first edition of Mike Benton’s Vertebrate Palaeontology came out in 1990, sauropods still dragged their tails on the ground, the closest relatives of whales were mesonychids, and Mesozoic birds consisted essentially of Archaeopteryx, Ichthyornis and Hesperornis. Twenty-five years later, the book, now in its fourth edition, is a third longer, in a larger format and sports fine colour plates – in addition to a companion website. 

The region of Porrentruy (Swiss Jura Mountains) is known for its rich and diverse assemblage of Late Jurassic coastal marine turtles (Thalassochelydia). Dominated by the “Plesiochelyidae”, this assemblage also includes representatives of the two other thalassochelydian groups, the “Thalassemydidae” and “Eurysternidae.” In this study, we present new shell-based material from Porrentruy referable to eurysternids. One specimen represents a juvenile individual or a relatively small taxon, and is notably characterized by a well fenestrated plastron exhibiting a wider than long central plastral fontanelle. Two other specimens are much larger and possibly represent the largest eurysternids known to date. The fourth specimen is characterized by a unique plastral morphology otherwise only known in very small juveniles. This is the first time this unique plastral morphology is known to persist in an adult or subadult. The new material described herein represents at least three distinct taxa, all of them probably new. However, we refrain from naming new species based on this incomplete material in order to avoid adding confusion to an already complex taxonomical situation. This study provides new insights into the great diversity of eurysternids during the Late Jurassic. 

As a result of the enrichment of eotheriodont material by one of us (P.K.T.), these specimens (essentially Biarmosuchur and Eotitanosuchur) are reexamined and refigured. A reevaluation of their particularities supports the distinction of two families, for which new diagnoses are proposed. This leads us to discuss the affinities of these families, with respect to the sphenacodonts on one hand, and to the South African primitive theriodonts on the other (gorgonopsids and ictidorhinids). This study contains inherent paleogeographic consequences which are considered in conclusion. 

The revision of the Rhombodontidae from the Maastrichtian of Morocco led us to the description of a new species: Rhombodus andriesi.

The biometrical study of populations of R. binkhorsti and R. microdon, species sometimes considered as synonymous, supports the conclusion that they represent two distinct species and not young and adult specimens of a single species. The stratigraphical range of these two species confirms this
result.

The reexarnination of type-series studied by C. Ararnbourg led us to revise the generic status of Rhombodus bondoni which is now ranged, because his dental features, in the new genus Dasyrhombodus showing a less derived dentition than Rhombodus. The stratigraphical range of each species is clarified within the phosphatic series. 

Nyctereutes megamastoides (Pomel) from the Villafranchian of the Auvergne and from Saint-Vallier presents cranial and dental characters sufficiently close to those of the late Pliocene canid from Perpignan (Roussillon), described by Depéret under the specific name of Canis donnezani belonging to the same genus Nyctereutes. The extinction of the European "Nyctereutes" group seems due to the too great alimentary specialization of this canid, whereas the Asiatic lineage represented in the Villafranchian by Nyctereutes sinensis Schlosser and at present by Nyctereutes procyonider Gray was able to maintain itself probably by means of a profound change in its alimentary regime. 

The rodents from the spanish locality of Can Ponsic 1 bring new data about some rodents species of the beginning of the Upper Miocene in South-West Europe. The criticims made by Mein and Freudenthal about the validity of the species Hispanomys thaleri from Can Llobateres are not justiíied. The study of the anatomy of the skull of Rotundomys from Can Ponsic 1 gives accurate information about the affinity of this genus with Cricetulus, and shows that the hypothesis, according to which Rotundomys is an ancestral form of the Arvicolids, is unlikely. The systematics of Heteroxerus and the phylogeny of the mio-pliocene Muscardinus species are also discussed. The Can Ponsic 1 locality is a little older than Can Llobateres.

  

Carolocoutoia ferigoloi gen. et sp. nov. is the largest of protodidelphid marsupials, known from Middle Paleocene levels at Itaboraí Formation, southeastern Brazil. It differs from other members of this family in having molars with low cusps which are basally inflated, rounded crests without cutting edges, and a thick enamel layer which is wrinkled, specially at the labial half. A comparative analysis among representatives of this family led us to recognize only three genera undoubtely assignable to it:  Protodidelphis PAULA COUTO, 1952, Robertbutleria MARSHALL, 1987, and Carolocoutoia gen. nov. Protodidelphids lack the basic derived features diagnostic of Polydolopimorphian marsupials, while most of its derived features agree with its belonging to the Didelphimorphia. Protodidelphids comprise a specialized clade of opossum-like marsupials adapted to frugivorous or frugivore-omnivorous feeding habits. They differ from other didelphimorphians in having very large, spire-like entoconids, reduced and antero-posteriorly compressed paraconids, absence of stylar cusp C and of para- and metaconules, large stylar cusps B and D which are proximate to each other, short postmetacristae, eccentric protocones, and molars that increase rapidly in size from M/ml to M/m3.
  

In this article is described a new species of Nyctitheriidae with primitive characters: Leptacodon nascimentoi n. sp. from the early Eocene of Silveirinha (Portugal). 

Perutherium altiplanerise THALER, 1967 from the Late Cretaceous of Peru has long been recognized as South America's oldest known placental mammal. Since its description Perutherium has been generally regarded as having condylarth affinity Based on our identification  of a unique notoungulate synapomorphy we recognize Perutherium as the oldest and the most generalized known member of that order. This new determination and the large taxonomic diversity (five families) of notoungulates in rocks of Paleocene age in Argentina and Brazil, favor a South American origin for this group. The occurrence of notoungulates in rocks of Late Paleocene age in Asia and North America is explained by dispersal of a notoungulate stock from South America to North America and from there to Asia. 

Sieving and washing of about 700 kg of sediment from the miocene site at Montpeyroux produced otoliths of 34 teleost species, of which four still occur in the present day fauna or are near to extant species. Among the fossil species, eight are new : Ilisha lerichei, «genus Clupeidarum ›› orbiculatus, Dipulus mediterraneus, Morone cornuta, Chanda nelsoni, Pomadasys steurbauti, «genus Sciaenidarum ›› barthassadensis and Paraplagusia roseni. The fauna found is typical for a tropical or subtropical very littoral, probably even estuarine environment; it was living in a period near the boundary between Lower and Middle Miocene, perhaps somewhat earlier. 

The late Pliocene site (MN 16) of Balaruc II (Hérault, France) has provided remains of the following amphibians and reptiles: Chelotriton pliocenicus nov. sp. and Triturus marmoratus (Salamandridae), cf. Rana (Ranidae), cf. Blanus (Amphisbaenidae), cf. Agama (Agamidae),  Gekkonidae indet., Lacerta s.l. (Lacertidae), "Ophisaurus" sp. (Anguidae), Michauxophis occitanus (Aniliidae), Erycinae indet. (Boidae), Elaphe cf. E. longissima and Malpolon sp. (Colubridae), cf. Naja (Elapidae) and Vipera sp. (Viperidae). The salamandrid Chelotriton pliocenicus and the aniliid Michauxophis occitanus constitute, up to now, the only records of these groups in the European Pliocene. The fauna is indicative of a warm, dry
subtropical climate. 

Equus caballus antunesi, nova subspecies, was a hypsodont, slender, and rather small horse (around 141cm at the withers), with narrow hooves and protocones longer on P3/-P4/ than on M1/-M2/. It does not fit in any of the different "types" of Pleistocene caballine horses previously recognized but may be related to the horse from the Acheulean of Solana del Zamborino.
Hypsodonty, small size, slenderness, narrow hooves are all characters that can easily be related to ecological conditions. Equus caballus antunesi was probably a horse adapted to rather dry and cold conditions and to a hard ground. It does not seem related at all to the North-European Equus caballus germanicus-gallicus group. 

The new fauna of Collet Redon (Bouches-du-Rhône, France) is dated by three rodents: Megacricetodon aff. bavaricus, Democricetodon affinis mutilus and Peridyromys cf. hamadryas. They correlate this locality with Oggenhof and Ohningen in Bavaria (Western Germany). As the radiometric age of Ohningen is estimated between 14 and 13 M.Y., these three localities are of Serravallian age. This datation brings a complete readjusment of the stratigraphy of the section of Collet Redon formerly described by Collot and Combaluzier. The marine deposits with underly the continental formation with the mammal fauna, are Burdigalian. The angular unconformity between the marine and the continental deposits gives evidence of an episode of emersion on the margin of a sedimentary basin, with deformation and erosion. Owing to the newly discovered fauna, this geodynamical event is clearly settled within the regional geographical and chronological context. Lacustrine and continental deposits of such an age were up to now unsuspected in this area.